Aflatoxin residues in organs and dairy products generally are eliminated within 1—3 weeks after exposure ends. Attention to weather patterns, especially drought and insect infestations in crops during growth, and chemical analysis of feeds for aflatoxins prior to use. Avoidance of aflatoxin contaminated feed, particularly to young or lactating animals; testing to ensure aflatoxin contaminated feed is below regulatory limits for the animal species, age, and production status.
Use of hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates HSCAs can reduce adverse effects in pigs and poultry and partially reduce aflatoxin M 1 in milk; however, it does not eliminate the residue.
Contaminated feeds can be avoided by monitoring batches for aflatoxin content. Local crop conditions drought, insect infestation should be monitored as predictors of aflatoxin formation. Young, newly weaned, pregnant, and lactating animals require special protection from suspected toxic feeds. Cleaning to remove lightweight or broken grains will often substantially reduce mycotoxin concentration in remaining grain. Ammoniation reduces aflatoxin contamination in grain; however, it is not currently approved by the US FDA for use in food animals in the US because of uncertainty about byproducts produced.
No specific antidote for aflatoxins is available. Exposure to contaminated feed should be stopped immediately. Animals should be provided a quality diet with attention to the protein level neither very low nor high protein in consideration of hepatic damage , vitamins, and trace minerals to aid recovery.
Patients may need support of hepatic function, and antimicrobial therapy for infectious processes and improved biosecurity may be needed. Recovery may be prolonged. With severe hepatic damage, animals may never return to a normal production status. Numerous products are marketed as anticaking agents to sequester or bind aflatoxins and reduce absorption from the GI tract.
Other adsorbents sodium bentonites, polymeric glucomannans have shown variable but partial efficacy in reducing low-level aflatoxin residues in poultry and dairy cattle.
Aflatoxins adversely affect birds, companion pets dogs and cats , livestock, rodents, fish, and humans, with the young at particular risk. Aflatoxins are mutagenic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive, and target the liver. Adverse effects are related to liver damage and can cause poor production, food residues, and death. Most countries have regulatory limits of aflatoxins in animal feeds, human food, and milk; feed should be chemically analyzed prior to use and aflatoxin contaminated feed should be avoided in lactating animals because of aflatoxin M 1 residue in milk.
Treatment is supportive and the hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicates can act as aflatoxin binders in feed and mitigate adverse effects and milk aflatoxin M 1 residue. US FDA. CPG Sec. Updated Meerdink GL. In: Plumlee KH, ed. Giardiasis must be differentiated from other causes of nutrient malassimilation eg, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiencyin Dogs and Cats Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is caused by decreased production of digestive enzymes by the pancreas.
The most common clinical signs are polyphagia, weight loss, and a large volume of loose Diarrhea and weight loss despite an increased appetite are the hallmarks Clinical laboratory findings are usually normal. Among small animal pets, chinchillas appear to be particularly prone to Giardia infection, especially kits; although clinical signs of infection appear to be relatively common, infection in apparently healthy animals has also been reported frequently in surveys.
In calves, and to a lesser extent in other production animals, giardiasis can result in diarrhea that does not respond to antimicrobial or coccidiostatic treatment. The excretion of pasty to fluid feces with a mucoid appearance may indicate giardiasis, especially when the diarrhea occurs in young animals 1—6 months old. Experimental infection of goat kids, lambs, and calves resulted in a decreased feed efficiency and subsequently a decreased weight gain.
Most infections of veterinary health importance are by G duodenalis, a species complex of different Gross intestinal lesions are seldom evident, although microscopic lesions, consisting of villous atrophy and cuboidal enterocytes, may be present. Koudela B, Vitovec J. Experimental giardiasis in goat kids. Vet Parasitol. The two main methods to diagnose Giardia infection are identification of Giardia cysts, and considerably less frequently, trophozoites in fecal samples and detection of Giardia antigen in fecal samples.
Sodium chloride, sucrose, or sodium nitrate flotation media may be too hypertonic and distort the cysts. Staining cysts with iodine aids in identification. Because Giardia cysts are excreted intermittently, infections may be missed; therefore, several fecal examinations should be performed if giardiasis is suspected eg, three samples collected over 3—5 consecutive days.
Because Giardia cysts rupture if dried or exposed to heat or extreme cold, the empty cysts may be difficult to see and may not have the same flotation characteristics as intact cysts. For laboratories with a fluorescent microscope, an immunofluorescent antibody staining of the cyst walls IFAT may be a rapid and easy way to detect them. Several commercial IFAT kits are available, with the antibodies usually coupled to fluorescein isothiocyanate. They should not be confused with yeast or with trichomonads, which have a single rather than double nucleus, an undulating membrane, and no concave ventral surface.
The "falling leaf" swimming motion of Giardia trophozoites is also characteristic. Giardia antigen that occurs in feces can be a useful method to diagnose Giardia infection, should infection be suspected but no cysts observed on microscopic examination.
Microtiter plate-format ELISA tests to diagnose Giardia infection in animals are apparently not commercially available, but some veterinarians have reported success with those designed for use in humans working satisfactorily with dog samples, or in-house plate-format ELISA tests can be used.
More commonly, and available from different commercial suppliers, are ELISA-based in-clinic tests, mostly for dog samples, that use lateral flow technology; these are simple to use and may provide a result within minutes. Different tests vary in their sensitivity and specificity; information about these differences is proprietary. Given the relative expense and defined shelf-life of these tests, it may be useful to investigate before investing in a particular test and to compare with other tests such as IFAT or in-house plate-format ELISA as a component of ongoing quality control.
Molecular methods PCR array are also available for diagnosis but are rarely used in a routine diagnostic setting. In some situations eg, in outbreaks or if a human case and an infected animal are in the same household , determining which assemblage of Giardia is causing the infection may be relevant.
Different protocols to identify the various assemblages have been published; however, relatively large numbers of nucleated cysts may be necessary for successful DNA extraction and amplification at target genes. Unequivocal results may be elusive, particularly in dogs. There is some debate concerning whether animals without clinical signs that continue to shed Giardia cysts, even after treatment, should continue to be treated.
Such cases need to be evaluated on an individual basis, preferably using a clinical decision-tree type format. Indeed, some guidelines advise against treating animals with subclinical infection; however, risk of transmission to other susceptible hosts should be considered, and strict hygiene measures Control Giardiasis is an intestinal infection with the protozoan flagellate parasite Giardia spp.
Drug treatment regimens should probably aim to stop clinical signs rather than eliminate cyst shedding. Treatment approval varies between country; no drugs are approved for treatment of giardiasis in dogs and cats in the US, and no drug is licensed for treatment of Giardia infection in ruminants or other livestock. It is reported to stop shedding of Giardia cysts in dogs, with no adverse effects reported, and is safe for pregnant and lactating animals.
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